Νευρογνωστικά ελλείμματα στη σχιζοφρένεια και τη διπολική διαταραχή : ομοιότητες και διαφορές

Part of : Hellenic journal of psychology ; Vol.9, No.1, 2012, pages 45-61

Issue:
Pages:
45-61
Parallel Title:
Neurocognitive deficits in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder : similarities and differences
Author:
Abstract:
Neurocognitive deficits are a central part of the core features of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder as they affect multiple domains of cognitive function, are associated with but are independent of symptomatology, they are found even during phases of remission of the symptomatology and affect the functionality of the patients. Most of these deficits are common in the two disorders in accordance with common mediating factors. The literature review for the purposes of the current study, though, indicates that despite this “qualitative” resemblance, there seems to be a differentiation as regards the severity of the neurocognitive deficits between the two disorders, with the schizophrenic patients presenting more severe deficits compared to patients with bipolar disorder.
Subject:
Subject (LC):
Keywords:
διπολική διαταραχή, νευρογνωστικά ελλείμματα, σχιζοφρένεια
Notes:
Περιέχει βιβλιογραφία
References (1):
  1. Addington, J., Saeedi, H., & Addington, D. (2006). Facial affect recognition: A mediatorbetween cognitive and social functioning in psychosis? Schizophrenia Research, 85, 142-150.Albus, M., Hubmann, W., Mohr, F., Scherer, J., Sobizack, N., Franz, U., et al. (1997). Arethere gender differences in neuropsychological performance in patients with first-episodeschizophrenia? Schizophrenia Research, 28, 39-50.Albus, M., Hubmann, W., Wahlheim, C., Sobizack, N., Franz, U., & Mohr, F. (1996).Contrasts in neuropsychological test profile between patients with first episode schizophreniaand first-episode affective disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 94, 87-93.Aleman, A., Hijman, R., de Haan, E. H. F., & Kahn, R. S. (1999). Memory impairment inschizophrenia: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1358-1366.Andreasen, N. C., O’Leary, D. S., Flaum, M., Nopoulos, P., Watkins, G. L., Boles Ponto, L.L., et al. (1997). Hypofrontality in schizophrenia: Disturbed dysfunctional circuits in neurolepticnaive patients. Lancet, 349, 1730- 1734.Atre-Vaidya, N., Taylor, M., Seindenberg, M., Reed, R., Perrine, A., & Glick-Oberwise, F.(1998). Cognitive deficits psychopathology and psychosocial functioning in bipolar mooddisorder. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology, 11, 120-126.Baddeley, A. (1996). Exploring the central executive. Quarterly Journal of ExperimentalPsychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 49A, 5-28.Bartok, E., Berecz, R., Glaub, T., & Degrell, I. (2005). Cognitive functions in prepsychoticpatients. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 29, 621-625.Bearden, C. E., Glahn, D. C., Monkul, E. S., Barrett, J., Najt, P., Kaur, S., Bearden, C. E., Glahn,D. C., Monkul, E. S., Barrett, J., Najt, P., Kaur, S., Sanches, M., Villarreal, V., Bowden, C.,& Soares J. C. (2006). Sources of declarative memory impairment in bipolar disorder:Mnemonic processes and clinical features. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 40, 47-58.Berrettini, W.H. (2000). Are schizophrenic and bipolar disorders related? A review of familyand molecular studies. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 531–538.Bertrand, M. C., Sutton, H., Achim, A. M., Malla, A. K., & Lepage M. (2007). Social cognitiveimpairments in first episode psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 95, 124-133.Bilder, R. M., Goldman, R. S., Robinson, D., Reiter, G., Bell, L., Bates, J. A., Bilder, R. M.,Goldman, R. S., Robinson, D., Reiter, G., Bell, L., Bates, J. A., Papadopulos, E., Wilson,D. F., Alvir, J. M., Woerner, M. G., Geisler, S., Kane, J. M., & Lieberman, J. A. (2000).Neuropsychology of first-episode schizophrenia: Initial characterization and clinical correlates.American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 549-559.Bora, E., Yücel, M., & Pantelis, C. (2009). Cognitive endophenotypes of bipolar disorder: Ameta-analysis of neuropsychological deficits in euthymic patients and their first-degreerelatives. Journal of Affective Disorders, 113, 1-20.Bora, E., Yücel, M., & Pantelis, C. (2010). Neurocognitive markers of psychosis in bipolardisorder: A meta-analytic study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 127, 1-9.Borod, J. C., Haywood, C. S., & Koff, ∂. (1997). ¡europsychologicaπ aspects of facial asymmetryduring emotional expression: ∞ review of the normal adult literature.¡euroÚsychology ReÓiew, 7, 41-60Boydell, J., van Os, J., McKenzie, K., & Murray, R. M. (2004). The association ofinequality with the incidence of schizophrenia: An ecological study. Social Psychiatryand Psychiatric Epidemiology, 39, 597-599.Bozikas, V. P., ∞ndreou, C., Ciannakou, M., Tonia, Δ., Bozikas, V. P., Andreou, C.,Giannakou, M., Tonia, T., Anezoulaki, D., Karavatos, A., Fokas, K., & Kosmidis, M. H.(2005). Deficits in sustained attention in schizophrenia but not in bipolar disorder.Schizophrenia Research, 78, 225-233.Bozikas, V. P., KÔsmidis, M. H., ∞nezoulaki, D., Giannakou, M., Andreou C., & Karavatos,A. (2006a). lmpaired perception of affective prosody in schizophrenia. Journal of¡europsychiatry and Clinical ¡eurosciences, 18, 81-85.Bozikas, V. P., Kosmidis, M. H., Kiosseoglou, G., & Karavatos, A. (2006b). Neuropsychologicalprofile of cognitively impaired patients with schizophrenia. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 47,136-143.Bozikas, V. P., Kosmidis, M. H, Δonia, Δ., ∞ndreou, C., Focas, K., & KaravatÔs, ∞. (2007).πmpaired perception of affective prosody in remitted patients with bipolar disorder.Journaπ of ¡europsychiatry and Clinical ¡eurosclences, 19, 436-440.Bramon, E., & Sham, P. C. (2001). The common genetic liability between schizophrenia andbipolar disorder: A review. Current Psychiatry Reports, 3, 332-337.Breslin, N. A., & Weinberger, D. R. (1990). Schizophrenia and the normal functional developmentof the prefrontal cortex. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 409-424.Buckley, P. F. (2008). Update on the treatment and management of schizophrenia andbipolar disorder. CNS Spectrums, 13(2 Suppl 1), 1-10.Burdick, K. E., Goldberg, J. F., & Harrow, M. (2010). Neurocognitive dysfunction and psychosocialoutcome in patients with bipolar I disorder at 15-year follow up. ActaPsychiatrica Scandinavica, 122, 499-506.Burdick, K. E., Goldberg, J. F., Harrow, M., Faull, R. N., & Malhotra, A. K. (2006).Neurocognition as a stable endophenotype in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Journalof Nervous and Mental Disease, 194, 255-260.Burdick, K. E., Gunawardane, N., Goldberg, J. F., Halperin, J. M., Garno, J. L., & Malhotra,A. K. (2009). Attention and psychomotor functioning in bipolar depression. PsychiatryResearch, 166, 192-200.Cabeza, R., & Nyberg, L. (2000). Imaging cognition II: An empirical review of 275 PET andfMRI studies. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 1-47.Calev, ∞., ¡igaπ, D., & Chazan, S. (1989). Retrieval from semantic memory using meaningfuland meaningless constructs by depressed, stable bipolar and manic patients. BritishJournaπ of Clinical Psychology, 28, 67-73.Cameron, ∞. M., Oram, J., Ceffen, C. M., Kavanagh, D. J., McCrath, J. J., & Ceffen, L. B.(2002). Working memory correlates of three symptom clusters in schizophrenia.Psychiatry Research, 110, 49-61.Cannon, Δ. D., Bearden, C. ∂., ∏ollister, J. M., Rosso, π. M., Sanchez, L. E., & Hadley, Δ.(2000). Childhood cognitive functioning in schizophrenia patients and their unaffectedsiblings: ∞ prÔspective cohÔrt study. Schizophrenia μulletin, 26, 379-393.Carter, C. S., Perlstein, W., Ganguli, R., Brar, J., Mintun, M., & Cohen, J. D. (1998).Functional hypofrontality and working memory dysfunction in schizophrenia. AmericanJournal of Psychiatry, 155, 1285-1287.Carter, C., Robertson, L., ¡ordahl, T., Chaderjian, M., Kraft, L., & O’Shora-Celaya, L.(1996). Spatial wÔrking memory deficits and their relationship to negatiÓe symptoms inunmedicated schizÔphrenia patients. μiological Psychiatry, 40, 930-932.Cavanagh, J. T., Van Beck, M., Muir, W., & Blackwood, D. H. (2002). Case-control study ofneurocognitive function in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder: An association withmania. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 320-326.Censits, D. M., Ragland, J. D., Gur, R. C., & Gur, R. E. (1997). Neuropsychological evidencesupporting a neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: A longitudinal study.Schizophrenia Research, 24, 289-298.Chen, C. K., Lin, S. K., Sham, P. C., Ball, D., Loh, E. W., Hsiao, C. C., et al. (2003). Premorbidcharacteristics and co-morbidity of methamphetamine users with and withoutpsychosis. Psychological Medicine, 33, 1407-1414.Coffman, J. A., Bornstein, R. ∞., Olson, S. C., Schwarzkopf, S. B., & Nasraπlah, ∏. ∞. (1990).Cognitive impairment and cerebral structure by MRI in bipolar disorder. BiologicalPsychiatry, 27, 1188-1196.Corcoran, R., Cahill, C., & Frith, C. D. (1997). The appreciation of visual jokes in peoplewith schizophrenia: A study of ‘mentalizing’ ability. Schizophrenia Research, 24, 319-327.Cornblatt, B., Obuchowski, M., Schnur, D., & O’Brien, J. D. (1998). Hillside study of risk andearly detection in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, Suppl 172, 26-32.Craddock, N., O’Donovan, M. C., & Owen, M. J. (2006). Genes for schizophrenia andbipolar disorder? Implications for psychiatric nosology. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 32, 9-16.Curran, C., Byrappa, N., & McBride, A. (2004). Stimulant psychosis: Systematic review.British Journal of Psychiatry, 185, 196-204.Dalby, J. Δ., & Williams, R. (1986). Preserved reading and speπling ability in psychiatric disorders.Psychologicaπ ªedicine, 15, 171-175.Deckersbach, T., Savage, C. R., Reilly-Harrington, N., Clark, L., Sachs, G., & Rauch, S. L.(2004). Episodic memory impairment in bipolar disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder:The role of memory strategies. Bipolar Disorders, 6, 233-244.Depp, C. A., Moore, D. J., Sitzer, D., Palmer, B. W., Eyler, L. T., Roesch, S., Lebowitz, B.D., & Jeste, D. V. (2007). Neurocognitive impairment in middle-aged and older adultswith bipolar disorder: Comparison to schizophrenia and normal comparison subjects.Journal of Affective Disorders, 101, 201-209.Edwards, J., Pattison, P. E., Jackson, H. J., & Wales, R. J. (2001). Facial affect and affectiveprosody recognition in first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 48, 235-253.Emilien, C., Penasse, C., & Waltregny, ∞. (1998). Cognitive impairment in depressive disorders:Neuropsychological evaluation of memory and behavioural disturbances.∂ncephale, 24, 138-150.Ferrier, π. ¡., Stanton, B. R., Kelly, T. P., & Scott, J. (1999). ¡europsychological function ineuthymic patients with bipolar disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 246-251.Fleck, D. E., Shear, P. K., Zimmerman, M. E., Getz G. E., Corey, K. B., Jak, A., Lebowitz,B. K., & Strakowski, S. M. (2003). Verbal memory in mania: Effects of clinical state andtask requirements. Bipolar Disorders, 5, 375-380.Frangou, S., Donaldson, S., Hadjulis, M., Landau, S., & Goldstein, L. H. (2005). TheMaudsley Bipolar Disorder Project: Executive dysfunction in bipolar disorder I and itsclinical correlates. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 859-864.Frith, C. D., & Done, D. J. (1988). Towards a neuropsychology of schizophrenia. BritishJournal of Psychiatry, 153, 437-443.Fucetola, R., Seidman, L. J., Kremen, W. S., Faraone, S. V., Goldstein, J. M., & Tsuang, M.T. (2000). Age and neuropsychologic function in schizophrenia: A decline in executiveabilities beyond that observed in healthy volunteers. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 137-146.Goldberg, T. E., Gold, J. M., Greenberg, R., Griffin, S., Schulz, S. C., Pickar, D., Kleinman,J. E., & Weinberger, D. R. (1993). Contrasts between patients with affective disordersand patients with schizophrenia on a neuropsychological test battery. American Journal ofPsychiatry, 150, 1355-1362.Gourovitch, M. L., Torrey, ∂. F., Cold, J. M., Randolph, C., Weinberger, D. R., & Goldberg,Δ. ∂. (1999). Neuropsychological performance of monozygotic twins discordant for bipolar disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 639-646.Green, M. F., Kern, R. S., Braff, D. L., & Mintz, J., (2000). Neurocognitive deficits and functionaloutcome in schizophrenia: Are we measuring the “right stuff”? SchizophreniaBulletin, 26, 119-136.Gruzelier, J., Seymour, K., WilsÔn, L., Joππey, ∞., & Hirsch, S. (1988). πmpairments on neuropsychologicaltests Ôf temporohippocampal and frÔntohippocampal functions andword fluency in remitting schizophrenia and affective disorders. Archives of CeneralPsychiatry, 15, 623-629.Harvey, P. D., Wingo, A. P., Burdick, K. E., & Baldessarini, R. J. (2010). Cognition and disabilityin bipolar disorder: Lessons from schizophrenia research. Bipolar Disorders, 12,364-375.Hawkins, K. ∞., Hoffman, R. ∂., Quinlan, D. M., Rakfeldt, J., Docherty, N. M., & Sledge, W.H. (1997). CÔgnition, negative symptoms, and diagnosis: ∞ comparison of schizophrenic,bipolar, and control samples. Journal of ¡europsychiatry and Clinical NeurÔscience, 9, 81-89.Heckers, S., Rauch, S. L., Goff, D., Savage, C. R., Schacter, D. L., Fischman, A. J., & Alpert,N. M. (1998). Impaired recruitment of the hippocampus during conscious recollection inschizophrenia. Nature Neuroscience, 1, 318-323.Heinrichs, R. W., & ∞wad, ∞. G. (1993). ¡eurocognitive subtypes of chronic schizophrenia.Schizophrenia Research, 9, 49-58.Heinrichs, R. W., & Zakzanis, K. K. (1998). Neurocognitive deficit in schizophrenia: A quantitativereview of the evidence. Neuropsychology, 12, 426- 445.Hoff, A. L., Sakuma, M., Wieneke, M., Horon, R., Kushner, M., & DeLisi, L. E. (1999).Longitudinal neuropsychological follow-up study of patients with first-episode schizophrenia.American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1336-1341.Jones, P., & Murray, R. M. (1991). The genetics of schizophrenia is the genetics of neurodevelopment.British Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 615-623.Kaplan, E., & Sadock, B. (2007). Εγχειρίδιο κλινικής ψυχιατρικής. (Ι. Τριποδιανάκης & Κ. Ζερβός μετ.). Αθήνα: Ιατρικές Εκδόσεις Λίτσας.Kapur, S., Tulving, E., Cabeza, R., McIntosh, A. R., Houle, S., & Craik, F. I. (1996). Theneural correlates of intentional learning of verbal materials: A PET study in humans.Cognitive Brain Research, 4, 243-249.Keck, P. E., McElroy, S. L., Havens, J. R., Altshuler, L. L., Nolen, W. A., Frye, M. A., et al.(2003). Psychosis in bipolar disorder: Phenomenology and impact on morbidity andcourse of illness. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 44, 263-269.Kendell, R. E. (1991). The major functional psychoses: Are they independent entities or partof a continuum? Philosophical and conceptual issues underlying the debate. In A. Kerr& H. McClelland (Eds.), Concepts of mental disorder (pp. 1-16). London: Gaskell.Kendler, K. S., & Diehl, S. R. (1993). The genetics of schizophrenia: A current, genetic-epidemiologicperspective. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 19, 261-285.Ketter, T. A., Wang, P. W., Becker, O. V., Nowakowska, C., & Yang, Y. (2004). Psychoticbipolar disorders: dimensionally similar to or categorically different from schizophrenia?Journal of Psychiatric Research, 38, 47-61.Kirch, D. G. (1993). Infection and autoimmunity as etiologic factors in schizophrenia: Areview and reappraisal. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 19, 355-370.Kircher, T. T. J., & Leube, D. T. (2003). Self-consciousness, self-agency, and schizophrenia.Consciousness and Cognition, 12, 656-669.Kosmidis, M. H., Bozikas, V. P., ∑afiri, ª., & Karavatos, ∞. (2006). Shared cognitiveprocesses in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Δest and the Stroop Δest. ¡euroscience Letters,409, 234-238.Kravariti, E., Morgan, K., Fearon, P., Zanelli, J. W., Lappin, J. M., Dazzan, P., Morgan, C.,Doody, G. A., Harrison, G., Jones, P. B., Murray, R. M., & Reichenberg, A. (2009).Neuropsychological functioning in first-episode schizophrenia. British Journal ofPsychiatry, 195, 336-345.Lencz, T., Bilder, R. M., & Cornblatt, B. (2001). The timing of neurodevelopmental abnormalityin schizophrenia: An integrative review of the neuroimaging literature. CNSSpectrum, 6, 233-255.Lepage, M., Habib, R., & Tulving, E. (1998). Hippocampal PET activations of memoryencoding and retrieval: The HIPER model. Hippocampus, 8, 313-322.Liotti, M., & Mayberg, H. S. (2001). Δhe roπe of functional neuroimaging in the neuropsychologyof depression. Journal of Clinical and ∂xperimentaπ ¡europsychology, 23, 121-136.McGrath, J., Scheldt, S., Welham, J., & Clair, A. (1997). Performance on tests sensitive toimpaired executive ability in schizophrenia, mania and well controls: Acute and subacutephases. Schizophrenia Research, 26, 127-137.Morice, R. (1990). Cognitive inflexibility and prefrontal dysfunction in schizophrenia andmania. British Journaπ of Psychiatry, 157, 50-54.Moritz, S., Krausz, M., Gottwalz, E., Lambert, M., Perro, C., Ganzer, S., & Naber, D. (2000).Cognitive dysfunction at baseline predicts symptomatic 1-year outcome in first-episodeschizophrenics. Psychopathology, 33, 48-51.Mur, M., Portella, M. J., Martinez-Aran, A., Pifarre, J., & Vieta, E. (2007). Persistent neuropsychologicaldeficits in euthymic bipolar patients: Executive function as a core deficit.Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68, 1078-1086.Myles-Worsley, M., Ord, L. M., Ngiralmau, H., Weaver, S., Blailes, F., & Faraone, S. V.(2007). The Palau Early Psychosis Study: Neurocognitive functioning in high risk adolescents.Schizophrenia Research, 89, 299-307.Nathaniel-James, D. A., Brown, R., & Ron, M. A. (1996). Memory impairment in schizophrenia: Its relationship to executive function. Schizophrenia Research, 21, 85-96.Niendam, T. A., Bearden, C. E., Johnson, J. K., McKinley, M., Loewy, R., O’Brien, M.,Nuechterlein, K. H., Green, M. F., & Cannon, T. D. (2006). Neurocognitive performanceand functional disability in the psychosis prodrome. Schizophrenia Research, 84, 100-111.Nieuwenstein, M. R., Aleman, A., & de Haan, E. H. (2001). Relationship between symptomdimensions and neurocognitive functioning in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of WCSTand CPT studies. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 35, 119-125.Norman, R. M. C., Malla, ∞. K., MÔrrison-Stewart, S. L., Helmes, ∂., WilliamsÔn, P. C.,Thomas, J., & CÔrtese, L. (1997). Neuropsychological correlates Ôf syndromes in schizophrenia.μritish Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 134-139.Pantelis, C., & Maruff, P. (2002). The cognitive neuropsychiatric approach to investigatingthe neurobiology of schizophrenia and other disorders. Journal of PsychosomaticResearch, 53, 655- 664.Pantelis, C., Wood. S. J., & Maruff, P. (2002). Schizophrenia. In J. E. Harrison & A. M.Owen (Eds.), Cognitive deficits in brain disorders (pp. 217-248). London: Martin Dunitz.Potash, J. B. (2006). Carving chaos: Genetics and the classification of mood and psychoticsyndromes. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 14, 47-63.Ragland, J. D., Moelter, S. T., McGrath, C., Hill, S. K., Gur, R. E., Bilker, W. B., Siegel, S.J., & Gur, R. C. (2003). Levels-of-processing effect on word recognition in schizophrenia.Biological Psychiatry, 54, 1154-1161.Reichenberg, A. (2010). The assessment of neuropsychological functioning in schizophrenia.Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 12, 383-392.Riley, E. M., McGovern, D., Mockler, D., Doku, V. C. K., Ceallaigh, S., Fannon, D. G.,Tennakoon, L., Santamaria, M., Soni, W., Morris, R. G., & Sharma, T. (2000).Neuropsychological functioning in first-episode psychosis: Evidence of specific deficits.Schizophrenia Research, 43, 47-55.Robinson, L. J., & Ferrier, I. N. (2006). Evolution of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder:A systematic review of cross-sectional evidence. Bipolar Disorders, 8, 103-116.Schretlen, D. J., Cascella, N. G., Meyer, S. M., Kingery, L. R., Testa, S. M., Munro, C. A.,Pulver, A. E., Rao, V. A., Diaz-Asper, C. M., Dickerson, F. B., Yolken, R. H., &Pearlson, G. D. (2007). Neuropsychological functioning in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.Biological Psychiatry, 62, 179-186.Schuepbach, D., Keshavan, M. S., Kmiec, J. A., & Sweeney, J. A. (2002). Negative symptomresolution and improvements in specific cognitive deficits after acute treatment in firstepisodeschizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 53, 249-261.Seidman, L. J., Giuliano, A. J., Meyer, E. C., Addington, J., Cadenhead, K. S., Cannon, T.D., McGlashan, T. H., Perkins, D.O., Tsuang, M. T., Walker, E. F., Woods, S. W.,Bearden, C. E., Christensen, B. K., Hawkins, K., Heaton, R., Keefe, R. S., Heinssen, R.,Cornblatt, B. A., & North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study (NAPLS) Group(2010). Neuropsychology of the prodrome to psychosis in the NAPLS consortium:Relationship to family history and conversion to psychosis. Archives of General Psychiatry,67, 578-588.Stefanopoulou, E., Manoharan, A., Landau, S., Geddes, J. R., Goodwin, G., & Frangou, S.(2009). Cogntiive functioning in patients with affective disorders and schizophrenia: Ameta-analysis. International Review of Psychiatry, 21, 336-356.Thomas, P., Kearney, G., Napier, E., Ellis, E., Leuder, I., & Johnson, M. (1996). Speech andlanguage in first onset psychosis differences between people with schizophrenia, mania,and controls. British Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 337-343.Velligan, D. I., & Bow-Thomas, C. C. (1999). Executive function in schizophrenia. Seminarsin Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 4, 24-33.Woodberry, K. A., Seidman, L. J., Giuliano, A. J., Verdi, M. B., Cook, W. L., & McFarlane,W. R. (2010). Neuropsychological profiles in individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis:Relationship to psychosis and intelligence. Schizophrenia Research, 123, 188-198.Young, J. W., Powell, S. B., Risbrough, V., Marston H. M., & Geyer, M. A. (2009). Using theMATRICS to guide development of a preclinical cognitive test battery for research inschizophrenia. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 122, 150-202.